Extreme Pressure Research Articles

Multimessenger measurements of the static structure of shock-compressed liquid silicon at 100 GPa

The ionic structure of high-pressure, high-temperature fluids is a challenging theoretical problem with applications to planetary interiors and fusion capsules. Here we report a multimessenger platform using velocimetry and angularly and spectrally resolved x-ray scattering to measure the thermodynamic conditions and ion structure factor of materials at extreme pressures. We document the pressure, density, and temperature of shocked silicon near 100GPa with uncertainties of 6%, 2%, and 20%, respectively. The measurements are sufficient to distinguish between and rule out some ion screening models. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

[Effects of Controlled-release Blended Fertilizer on Crop Yield and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Wheat-maize Rotation System].

The increasing use of nitrogen fertilizers exerts extreme pressure on the environment (e.g., greenhouse gas emissions, GHGs) for winter wheat-summer maize rotation systems in the North China Plain. The application of controlled-release fertilizers is considered as an effective measure to improve crop yield and nitrogen fertilizer utilization efficiency. To explore the impact of one-time fertilization of controlled-release blended fertilizer on crop yield and GHGs of a wheat-maize rotation system, field experiments were carried out in Dezhou Modern Agricultural Science and Technology Park from 2020 to 2022. Five treatments were established for both winter wheat and summer maize, including no nitrogen control (CK), farmers' conventional nitrogen application (FFP), optimized nitrogen application (OPT), CRU1 (the blending ratio of coated urea and traditional urea on winter wheat and summer maize was 5:5 and 3:7, respectively), and CRU2 (the blending ratio of coated urea and traditional urea on winter wheat and summer maize was 7:3 and 5:5, respectively). The differences in yield, nitrogen fertilizer utilization efficiency, fertilization economic benefits, and GHGs among different treatments were compared and analyzed. The results showed that nitrogen application significantly increased the single season and annual crop yields of the wheat-maize rotation system (P < 0.05). Compared with those of FFP, the CRU1 and CRU2 treatments increased the yields of summer maize by 0.4% to 5.6%, winter wheat by -5.4% to 4.1%, and annual yields by -1.1% to 3.9% (P > 0.05). N recovery efficiency (NRE), N agronomic efficiency (NAE), and N partial factor productivity (NPFP) were increased by -8.6%-43.4%, 2.05-6.24 kg·kg-1, and 4.24-10.13 kg·kg-1, respectively. Annual net income increased by 0.2% to 6.3%. Nitrogen application significantly increased the annual emissions of soil N2O and CO2 in the rotation system (P < 0.05) but had no effect on the annual emissions of CH4 (except for in the FFP treatment in the first year). The annual total N2O emissions under the CRU1 and CRU2 treatments were significantly reduced by 23.4% to 30.2% compared to those under the FFP treatment (P < 0.05). Additionally, nitrogen application significantly increased the annual global warming potential (GWP) of the rotation system (P < 0.05), but the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions was reduced due to the increase in crop yields. Compared with that under FFP, the annual GWP under the CRU1 and CRU2 treatments decreased by 9.6% to 11.5% (P < 0.05), and the annual GHGs decreased by 11.2% to 13.8% (P > 0.05). In summary, the one-time application of controlled-release blended fertilizer had a positive role in improving crop yield and economic benefits, reducing nitrogen fertilizer input and labor costs, and GHGs, which is an effective nitrogen fertilizer management measure to promote cleaner production of food crops in the North China Plain.

Understanding the effects of egg loss from fisher handling to improve conservation of a threatened freshwater crayfish (Euastacus armatus)

Context Handling of wild animals can have adverse effects on individuals that scale up to affect populations and ultimately species. Limited mobility and high harvest pressure expose the threatened Australian freshwater crayfish (Euastacus armatus) to multiple handling events by fishers that cause egg loss. Aim Our aim was to assess the effects from harvest pressure on the reproductive output of an E. armatus population. Methods A stochastic model based on empirical data and estimated harvest pressures was used to predict the effect of repetitive handling of individuals on a population of E. armatus subject to harvest and consequent egg loss. Key results Egg loss resulted in substantial predicted population-level declines, most pronounced in populations subject to high and extreme harvest pressures. Conclusions We advocate educating fishers to visually determine the reproductive condition of female crayfish by inspecting gonopore setation, eliminating the need for unfurling the tail. Implications Maximising species reproductive output through limiting handling loss supports the management and conservation of E. armatus populations.

Extreme wave impacts on a suspended box above free surface

A systematic approach incorporating precision-controlled experiments and high-fidelity numerical simulations has been employed to delve deeper into the physics of extreme wave impact pressures. Using a suite of high-speed imaging and high-resolution pressure sensing techniques that are accurately synchronized with the wave generation, a consistent and well-correlated set of data providing details of the focusing incident wave front, flow velocities, and impact pressure time histories has been successfully obtained. The numerical simulations using a validated incompressible smoothed particle hydrodynamics (ISPH) provided further details that were not tractable in the experiments. Based on the results obtained, there were five broad impact scenarios identified, ranging from focusing crest impacts to plunging jet impacts with varying entrapped air. Among these impact types, the highest impact pressures were those associated with a focusing wave crest. It has been found that high impact pressures were correlated with a convergence of the horizontally impinging overturning crest and the vertical surge of the wall boundary water mass, but with the overturning crest impingement just ahead of the arrival of the wall boundary water mass, which in essence amounted to the impingement of a focusing wave front. Depending on the relative arrival times of the impinging crest and the wall boundary upsurge, the impact scenarios could vary from an up-slosh to a jet impingement with a clear entrapped air pocket, followed by a flip-through of the incident crest. For the scenario with the highest impact pressures, broadly classified as type II impact in this paper, the peak pressures could reach as high as 85ρC2, an order of magnitude higher than impact scenarios without the focusing effect, such as the scenario with a plunging jet impact with entrapped air (classified as types III and IV impact in this study). As the volume of entrapped air for this scenario was relatively small, the one-phase ISPH model used in this study was able to capture the peak pressure characteristics, including the peak pressure amplitudes. However, in scenarios with significantly highly entrapped air during impact, a two-phase model would be necessary.

How overloaded employees can use resilience and forgiveness resources to overcome dissatisfaction and maintain their knowledge-sharing efforts

Purpose Drawing on conservation of resources theory, this study aims to examine how employees’ experiences of excessive workloads may direct them away from efforts to share knowledge with other organizational members, as well as the circumstances in which this process is more or less likely. To untangle the process, the authors predict a mediating role of job dissatisfaction and moderating roles of two complementary resources that help employees cope with failure: resilience as a personal resource and organizational forgiveness as an organizational resource. Design/methodology/approach Survey data were gathered from employees of an organization that operates in the construction retail sector. The Process macro provides an empirical test of the moderated mediation dynamic that underpins the proposed conceptual framework. Findings The statistical findings affirm that an important channel through which employees’ perceptions that their work demands are unreasonable escalate into a diminished propensity to share knowledge is their lack of enthusiasm about their jobs. Their ability to recover from challenging work situations and their beliefs that the organization does not hold grudges against people who commit mistakes both mitigate this harmful effect. Practical implications For organizational practitioners, this research shows that when employees feel frustrated about extreme work pressures, the resource-draining situation may escalate into diminished knowledge sharing, which might inadvertently undermine their ability to receive valuable feedback for dealing with the challenges. From a positive perspective, individual resilience and organizational forgiveness represent resources that can protect employees against this negative spiral. Originality/value This study explicates an unexplored harmful effect of strenuous workloads on knowledge sharing, which is explained by employees’ beliefs that their organization fails to provide satisfactory job experiences. This effect also is mitigated to the extent that employees can draw from valuable personal and organizational resources.

Synergistic Effects of Layered Double Hydroxide and MoS2 on the Performance of Lubricants

In this study, layered double hydroxide (LDH) and molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) were used as additives to prepare lubricants. The morphology and particle distribution of the LDH and MoS2 were characterized using a scanning electron microscope and a laser particle size analyzer, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to compare the performance of the lubricants at high temperature. The extreme pressure and wear resistance performance of the lubricants were tested using a four-ball machine and a fretting-wear machine. Then, the lubricants were applied in a bolt fastener. The loosening torque and surface wear condition at high temperature were compared. By adding LDH and MoS2 to the lubricants, the extreme pressure and wear resistance performance and anti-seize performance at high temperature were improved significantly. The LDH showed better anti-seize performance than the MoS2 because of its strong and stable structure at high temperature. The MoS2 showed better anti-wear performance under a high load because of its soft layered structure. The MoS2 with a larger particle size showed better extreme pressure performance under a high load. The LDH and MoS2 played a synergistic effect under the conditions of high temperature and high load.

Shaken and Stirred: The Crisis of Masculinity in<em> Casino Royale</em>

This article evaluates the literary figure of James Bond as a manifestation and projection of the Masculinity Crisis of the 1950’s white western male. In his first outing in Ian Fleming’s 1953 Casino Royale, Bond functions as a figure of subjectivity-splitting anxiety through whom the Masculinity Crisis is channelled with catastrophic effects for the character’s own sense of self, mirroring wider social fears about changing roles in an increasingly altering post-war society. While a number of scholars increasingly note the utility of masculinity theory in James Bond studies, the origin of the character’s troubled relationship to his own masculine self is yet to be explored in Fleming’s first novel as cinematic critiques take centre stage in analytical discussions. This article argues that the demands of a hegemonic hyper masculinity, combined with the dualistic lifestyle of a spy, see Bond oscillate between "ideal" and "transgressive" versions of masculine embodiment. This is shown to ultimately work to dissociate the character from his own sense of self, propelling him into crisis. It examines three areas of binary conflict: wealth and ruin, virility and castration, and masculinity and femininity, arguing the extreme pressures of each create an unstable, uneasy, and unhealthy masculine entity in need of critical re-examination.

Experimental study on wind load characteristics of rooftop canopies of low and medium rise buildings

Rooftop canopy is popular in buildings, and it is prone to wind induced damage due to its light weight and slender configuration. However, investigation on the wind load on this kind of structure has not been conducted, leading to a wind resistant design without a firm basis. This study measures the wind pressure acting on the rooftop canopy considering 4 different underneath building heights, whose prototype vary from 6m to 24m. The mean, fluctuating, and extreme wind pressure coefficients are examined. The correlation coefficients between the pressures at different positions are also checked. Results show that the underneath building height has significant effect on the wind load coefficients of the canopy. The correlation between wind pressures on both the upper and lower surfaces decreases gradually with the increase of the building height. The most unfavorable height of building found in this study is 12m, with the largest uplift net pressure coefficient of the canopy close to −7.0. Comparison with the design values for claddings of free roof in ASCE 7–22 shows that the rooftop canopy can practically have much larger uplift (negative) net pressure in the edge region.

Reframing Silence as Purposeful: Emotions in Extreme Contexts

AbstractIndividuals bear the weight of emotional distress when exposed to brutality and suffering in warzones. Yet, immersed in scenes of intense human tragedy, they must publicly mask their emotional turmoil. How then may such individuals cope with the emotional distress they suffer but mute? Through the analysis of 53 unsolicited, personal diaries, non‐participant observations in conflict zones, and interviews with Médecins Sans Frontières personnel, we study medical professionals who work in extreme contexts. Employing Goffman's notions of frontstage and backstage behaviour, we reveal silence as an emotional defence mechanism. We argue that this silence is a result of individuals’ deliberate choice rather than being muted by external forces. This choice enables individuals to maintain focus and perform critical, often life‐saving duties under extreme pressure. We find that silence does not imply an absence of emotion nor diminish emotional distress. Instead, silence functions as a protective measure against potential emotional breakdowns. We illustrate how journaling serves as a private refuge for self‐expression, enabling individuals to navigate their emotions and experiences away from scrutiny by others. We contribute to understanding emotional regulation in extreme contexts, and redefine silence as an essential aspect of coping and resilience.

Dark No More: The Low-luminosity Stellar Counterpart of a Dark Cloud in the Virgo Cluster* * Based on observations obtained with the Hobby–Eberly Telescope (HET), which is a joint project of the University of Texas at Austin, the Pennsylvania State University, Ludwig-Maximillians-Universitaet Muenchen, and Georg-August Universitaet Goettingen. The HET is named in honor of its principal benefactors, William P. Hobby and Robert E. Eberly.

We have discovered the stellar counterpart to the ALFALFA Virgo 7 cloud complex, which has been thought to be optically dark and nearly star-free since its discovery in 2007. This ∼190 kpc long chain of enormous atomic gas clouds (M H i ∼ 109 M ⊙) is embedded in the hot intracluster medium of the Virgo galaxy cluster but is isolated from any galaxy. Its faint, blue stellar counterpart, BC6, was identified in a visual search of archival optical and UV imaging. Follow-up observations with the Green Bank Telescope, Hobby–Eberly Telescope, and Hubble Space Telescope demonstrate that this faint counterpart is at the same velocity as the atomic gas, actively forming stars, and metal-rich (12 + (O/H) = 8.58 ± 0.25). We estimate its stellar mass to be only log(M*/M⊙)∼4.4 , making it one of the most gas-rich stellar systems known. Aside from its extraordinary gas content, the properties of BC6 are entirely consistent with those of a recently identified class of young, low-mass, isolated, and star-forming clouds in Virgo that appear to have formed via extreme ram pressure stripping events. We expand the existing discussion of the origin of this structure and suggest NGC 4522 as a likely candidate; however, the current evidence is not fully consistent with any of our proposed progenitor galaxies. We anticipate that other “dark” gas clouds in Virgo may have similarly faint, star-forming counterparts. We aim to identify these through the help of a citizen science search of the entire cluster.

Experimental and numerical investigation of transpiration cooling with gradient porosity layout for the thermal protection of nose cone

Transpiration cooling with liquid phase change has been widely regarded as one of the most promising thermal protection technology for aerospace vehicles. However, when applied to the nose cone with small curvature radius, cooling failure may occur due to the extreme high heat flux and pressure at the stagnation point. In order to deal with this issue, a wedged-shaped nose cone structures with a gradient porosity layout is designed in this work to optimize the coolant distribution in the porous nose cone, and the corresponding transpiration cooling performance with liquid phase change is experimentally and numerically investigated. At last, to meet the thermal protection requirements under different flight conditions as best as possible, an orthogonal experiment and fuzzy gray analysis were carried out to optimize the particle diameter, porosity layout and division interval of the porous nose cone with gradient porosity layout, taking a specific flight condition as an example. The results obtained in this work showed that gradient porosity layout can significantly improve the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point and the temperature uniformity on the outer surface. The porosity has the highest impact on the cooling performance, while the division interval has little impact. By optimizing, the cooling efficiency at the stagnation point can reach 74.5%, and the maximum temperature difference is less than 500K.

Extreme pressure coefficients: modelling a hydraulic jump using deep-learning based methods

Extreme pressure coefficients: modelling a hydraulic jump using deep-learning based methods

Shock compression experiments using the DiPOLE 100-X laser on the high energy density instrument at the European x-ray free electron laser: Quantitative structural analysis of liquid Sn

X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) sources coupled to high-power laser systems offer an avenue to study the structural dynamics of materials at extreme pressures and temperatures. The recent commissioning of the DiPOLE 100-X laser on the high energy density (HED) instrument at the European XFEL represents the state-of-the-art in combining x-ray diffraction with laser compression, allowing for compressed materials to be probed in unprecedented detail. Here, we report quantitative structural measurements of molten Sn compressed to 85(5) GPa and ∼3500 K. The capabilities of the HED instrument enable liquid density measurements with an uncertainty of ∼1% at conditions which are extremely challenging to reach via static compression methods. We discuss best practices for conducting liquid diffraction dynamic compression experiments and the necessary intensity corrections which allow for accurate quantitative analysis. We also provide a polyimide ablation pressure vs input laser energy for the DiPOLE 100-X drive laser which will serve future users of the HED instrument.

Tribological characteristics and mechanisms of boronitrogenated methyl epoxyoleate as bio‐based additive in petroleum lubricant

In this work, boronitrogenated methyl epoxyoleate (BNMEO) was prepared by boronization and nitrogenation of methyl epoxyoleate (MEO). The tribological properties of BNMEO and MEO as bio‐based lubricating additives in a petroleum oil were determined on a four‐ball tribometer. The topographies, element compositions, and tribochemical species of the worn surfaces were analyzed by a scanning electron microscope, an energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometer, and an X‐ray photoelectron spectroscope, respectively. Results showed that both BNMEO and MEO, especially the former, were excellent in fortifying load‐carrying capacities and friction‐reducing and antiwear abilities of the oil under mild loads. However, their abilities in improving extreme pressure property of the oil under severe loads were very limited. The prominent ability of BNMEO in reducing friction and wear was characterized by well‐increased maximum nonseizure loads and decreased wear scar diameters and friction coefficients and was attributed to generation of a dense and robust boundary lubrication film which consisted of a matrix of BNMEO with inclusions of aminic compounds, boron oxide, iron oxide, and hydrocarbons, thanks to strong adsorptions and tribo‐oxidations of BNMEO on the metallic surfaces in the tribological processes.

In situ preparation of Cu-Mo-S nanoparticle additive with multi-functional tribological properties

Complex operating conditions pose greater challenges for lubricants, making the development of multi-functional additives a trend. This research introduces a multifunctional Cu-Mo-S nanoparticle (CMS) additive, synthesized using a unique one-pot in situ method. The CMS significantly improved the tribological performance and oxidation stability of base oils. Specifically, 0.5 wt% CMS manifested a remarkable reduction in the friction coefficient and wear volume of ester-based oils by 74.75% and 95.91%, accompanied by a noteworthy increase in the extreme pressure capabilities exceeding 50%, outperforming the individual copper nanoparticles, organic molybdenum, and their mixtures. The remarkable results are attributed to the distinctive structure of CMS, which decomposed during the friction process, forming a continuous friction film containing copper, molybdenum, and iron compounds.

Tribocorrosion behavior of GCr15 steel in water–glycol fire-resistant hydraulic fluids (HFC) containing seawater

With the development of deep-sea exploration technology, the technology of fire-retardant hydraulic fluid (HFC) has played an important role in the power transmission of exploration equipment. However, the mechanism of the influence of seawater content on the tribocorrosion behavior of HFC remains unclear. In this study, the effects of different seawater contents on the tribological and corrosive properties of HFC were systematically investigated. The results showed that when the seawater concentration exceeds 30 wt%, a soft Mg-containing reaction film is formed in the friction contact area owing to seawater corrosion, thus effectively improving the sintering load and wear resistance to some extent. By contrast, with increasing seawater concentration, the lubricity declines, the wear intensifies, and the extreme pressure characteristics decrease significantly. The comparative analysis shows that the composition of the wear and corrosion reaction films significantly differs under high-concentration seawater conditions, which is also a key factor affecting the friction and corrosion behavior of HFC. This study provides a direction for the research and development of wear- and corrosion-resistant materials and coatings on the surface of deep-sea exploration equipment.

Sensing at the Nanoscale Using Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamond: A Model for a Quantum Pressure Sensor.

The sensing of stress under harsh environmental conditions with high resolution has critical importance for a range of applications including earth's subsurface scanning, geological CO2 storage monitoring, and mineral and resource recovery. Using a first-principles density functional theory (DFT) approach combined with the theoretical modelling of the low-energy Hamiltonian, here, we investigate a novel approach to detect unprecedented levels of pressure by taking advantage of the solid-state electronic spin of nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in diamond. We computationally explore the effect of strain on the defect band edges and band gaps by varying the lattice parameters of a diamond supercell hosting a single NV center. A low-energy Hamiltonian is developed that includes the effect of stress on the energy level of a ±1 spin manifold at the ground state. By quantifying the energy level shift and split, we predict pressure sensing of up to 0.3 MPa/Hz using the experimentally measured spin dephasing time. We show the superiority of the quantum sensing approach over traditional optical sensing techniques by discussing our results from DFT and theoretical modelling for the frequency shift per unit pressure. Importantly, we propose a quantum manometer that could be useful to measure earth's subsurface vibrations as well as for pressure detection and monitoring in high-temperature superconductivity studies and in material sciences. Our results open avenues for the development of a sensing technology with high sensitivity and resolution under extreme pressure limits that potentially has a wider applicability than the existing pressure sensing technologies.

A Concise Review on Materials for Injection Moulds and Their Conventional and Non-Conventional Machining Processes

Injection moulds are crucial to produce plastic and lightweight metal components. One primary associated challenge is that these may suffer from different types of failures, such as wear and/or cracking, due to the extreme temperatures (T), thermal cycles, and pressures involved in the production process. According to the intended geometry and respective needs, mould manufacturing can be performed with conventional or non-conventional processes. This work focuses on three foremost alloys: AMPCO® (CuBe alloy), INVAR-36® (Fe-Ni alloys, Fe-Ni36), and heat-treated (HT) steels. An insight into the manufacturing processes’ limitations of these kinds of materials will be made, and solutions for more effective machining will be presented by reviewing other published works from the last decade. The main objective is to provide a concise and comprehensive review of the most recent investigations of these alloys’ manufacturing processes and present the machinability challenges from other authors, discovering the prospects for future work and contributing to the endeavours of the injection mould industry. This review highlighted the imperative for more extensive research and development in targeted domains.

Preliminary comparative study of lower extremity pressure measurements under the conditions using former models and new lithotomy stirrups in rectal cancer surgery

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate the effect of the use of new lithotomy stirrups-2 on the pressure dispersal on lower limbs, which may lead to the prevention of well-leg compartment syndrome (WLCS) and deep venous thrombosis (DVT), which are the most commonly associated adverse events with laparoscopic and robot-assisted rectal surgery.MethodsA total of 30 healthy participants were included in this study. The pressure (mmHg) applied on various lower limb muscles when using conventional lithotomy stirrups-1 and new type stirrups-2 was recorded in various lithotomy positions; 1) neutral position, 2) Trendelenburg position (15°) with a 0° right inferior tilt, and 3) Trendelenburg position (15°) with a 10° right inferior tilt. Using a special sensor pad named Palm Q®, and the average values were compared between two types of stirrups.ResultsThe use of new lithotomy stirrups-2 significantly reduced the pressure applied on the lower limb muscles in various lithotomy positions compared with the use of lithotomy stirrups-1. The most pressured lower limb muscle when using both lithotomy stirrups was the central soleus muscle, which is the most common site for the development of WLCS and DVT. In addition, when using the conventional lithotomy stirrups-1, the pressure was predominantly applied to the proximal soleus muscle; however, when using lithotomy stirrups-2, the pressure was shifted to the more distal soleus muscle.ConclusionThese results suggest that the new lithotomy stirrups-2 is useful in reducing the pressure load on leg muscles, especially on the proximal to central soleus, and may reduce the incidence of WLCS and DVT after rectal surgery performed in the lithotomy position. Further clinical studies are needed to determine whether the use of lithotomy stirrups-2 prevents these complications in various clinical settings.

Tribological behavior of sulfonitrided tribofilm generated from non-corrosive dimercaptobenzothiadiazole-based additives as effective boundary lubrication layer

Lubricant additives are essential to protect mechanical devices. Although sulfur (S)-based dialkylpentasulfide (RC2540) exhibits acceptable extreme pressure (EP) performance, a high amount of S causes severe corrosion and poorer anti-wear (AW) performance. Herein, dimercaptobenzothiadiazole-based additives (DMTDs) consist of four and five S atoms, namely 2-(benzyldisulfanyl)-5-(benzylsulfanyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (4SBZ), 2-(octyldisulfanyl)-5-(octylsulfanyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (4SC8), 2,5-bis(benzyldisulfanyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (5SBZ), and 2,5-bis(octyldisulfanyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazole (5SC8) were synthesized. The synthesized DMTDs are non-corrosive (Grade 1a-1b) compared to RC2540 (Grade 4c). The 10 wt% 5SBZ demonstrated exceptional EP and AW performance than RC2540. The 10 wt% 5SBZ has improved weld load and reduced wear scar area by 5.0 folds and 94.1% compared to naphthenic base oil. The exceptional tribological properties of 5SBZ are attributed to the strong non-covalent interaction between the benzene ring and metal surfaces, high S content, and synergistic effect between S and N. Alternatively, the DMTDs exhibit better AW performance compared to RC2540. The XPS depth profiling demonstrated the formation of sulfonitrided tribofilm after lubrication with synthesized DMTDs. This tribofilm contributed to an excellent boundary lubrication layer for wear protection. The lubrication mechanism was discussed and proposed. This work provides promising DMTDs as EP and AW additives for industrial applications.